United Nations

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress and human rights issues. The UN was founded in 1945 to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between nations and to provide a platform for dialogue.
There are now 192 member states, including almost every recognized independent state. From its headquarters on international territory within New York City, the UN and its specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout the year. The organization is divided into administrative bodies, primarily:
The General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly);
The Security Council (decides certain resolutions for peace and security);
The Economic and Social Council (assists in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development);
The Secretariat (provides studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN);
The International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ).
Additional bodies deal with the governance of all other UN System agencies, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). The UN’s most visible public figure is the Secretary-General, currently Ban Ki-moon of South Korea.
The UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from member states, and has six official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.

Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences

The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, officially named The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (Swedish: Sveriges riksbanks pris i ekonomisk vetenskap till Alfred Nobels minne), is an award for outstanding contributions in the field of economics and is generally considered one of the most prestigious awards in that field It is commonly referred to as the “Nobel Prize in Economicsand it is identified with the Nobel Prizes, although it is not one of the five Nobel Prizes (in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace) which were established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895.[ The Prize in Economics, as it is frequently referred to by the Nobel Foundation, is a prize established in memory of Alfred Nobel in 1968 on the 300th anniversary of Sveriges Riksbank (the central bank of Sweden, sometimes called the Bank of Sweden or the Swedish National Bank It was first awarded in 1969 to the Dutch and Norwegian economists Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch, “for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes Like the Nobel Laureates in Chemistry and Physics, Laureates in Economics are selected by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Famous economists

Early economists were found in the Ancient Greek world, with Aristotle (382-322 BC) expounding in his work Topics on the topic of human production and further examining the topic in Politics.[11] Xenophon (431-355) also wrote extensively on the Athenian economy in his work Economics. [12] According to some historians, “the pioneer economist of the world” was Chanakya (c. 350-283 BC) an adviser and prime minister to the first Maurya Emperor Chandragupta from 340-293 BC.[13] In the 1700s, one of the first economic writers was Richard Cantillon (1680-1734), who wrote the treatise Essai Sur la Nature du Commerce en Général. Early founders of economic concepts included the Scottish philosopher, economist, and historian. David Hume 1711-1776) and the so-called “classical economists”: English demographer and political economist Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), political economist David Ricardo (1772–1823), and the Scottish moral philosopher and political economist Adam Smith (1723-1790). Other early developers of economic concepts include the British philosopher, political economist John Stuart Mill (1806–1873); French economist and free trade advocate Jean-Baptiste Say (1767–1832); Prussian philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary Karl Marx (1818–1883); French classical liberal theorist and political economist, Frédéric Bastiat (1801–1850); and English economist and logician William Stanley Jevons (1835-1882).
Founders of important economic concepts who were alive during the 20th century include the Austrian economist Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk (1851–1914); the founder of the Austrian School of economics, Carl Menger (1840–1921); British economist, developer of Keynesian economics, and influential founders of modern theoretical macroeconomics John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946); American economist, health campaigner, and eugenicist Irving Fisher (1867-1947); German economist and proponent of the social market economy, Wilhelm Röpke (1899-1966); American economists, Nobel Prize Laureate and proponent of the Tobit model, James Tobin (1918-2002); Austrian-British member of the Austrian School of economics Friedrich Hayek (1899-1992); and American economist, public intellectual, and laissez-faire capitalism advocate Milton Friedman (1912–2006).
Current well-known American economists include Paul Krugman, a public intellectual, advocate of modern liberal policies, known for his descriptions of rising inequality; Jeffrey Sachs, former United Nations economic adviser to the Secretary-General and author of The End of Poverty; and Alan Greenspan, the former chairman of the Federal Reserve.

Economist

An economist is an expert in the social science of economics.[1] The individual may also study, develop, and apply theories and concepts from economics and write about economic policy. Within this field there are many sub-fields, ranging from the broad philosophical theories to the focused study of minutiae within specific markets, macroeconomic analysis, microeconomic analysis or financial analysis, involving analytical methods and tools such as econometrics, statistics, economics computational models, financial economics, financial mathematics and mathematical economics.
[edit] In academia
The professionalization of economics, reflected in academia, has been described as “the main change in economics since around 1900.”[2] Most major universities have an economics faculty, school or department, where academic degrees are awarded in economics. However, many prominent economists come from a background in mathematics, engineering, business, law, sociology, or history.
The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, established by Sveriges Riksbank in 1968, is a prize awarded to economists each year for outstanding intellectual contributions in the field of economics. The prize winners are announced in October every year. They receive their awards (a prize amount, a gold medal and a diploma) on December 10, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel’s death.[3]

Professions
Economists work in many fields including academia, government and in the private sector, where they may also “…study data and statistics in order to spot trends in economic activity, economic confidence levels, and consumer attitudes. They assess this information using advanced methods in statistical analysis, mathematics, computer programming [and] they make recommendations about ways to improve the efficiency of a system or take advantage of trends as they begin.”[4]
It is more difficult to define the professional category of “economists” than to define regulated professions such as engineering, law or medicine. While a lawyer, for example, may be generally defined as a person possessing a law degree and state license to practice law, there is not a legally-required educational requirement or license for economists. In some job settings, the possession of a Bachelor’s or Master’s degree in economics is considered the minimum credential for being an economist. However, in some parts of the US government, a person can be considered an economist as long as they have four or more university courses in economics. As well, a person can gain the skills required to become a professional economist in other related disciplines, such as statistics or some types of applied mathematics, such as mathematical finance or game theory.
A professional working inside of one of many fields of economics or having an academic degree in this subject is widely considered to be an economist, and any person within any of these fields can claim to be one[citation needed]. Economists are also employed in banking, finance, accountancy, commerce, marketing, business administration, lobbying and non- or not-for profit organizations.
Politicians often consult economists before enacting policy, and many statesmen have academic degrees in economics (see List of politicians with economics training).

By country
Economics graduates are employable in varying degrees, depending on the regional economic scenario and labour market conditions at the time for a given country. Apart from the specific understanding of the subject, employers value the skills of numeracy and analysis, the ability to communicate and the capacity to grasp broad issues which the graduates acquire at the university or college. Whilst only a few economics graduates may be expected to become professional economists, many find it a base for entry into a career in finance – including accounting, insurance, tax and banking, or management. A number of economics graduates from around the world have been successful in obtaining employment in a variety of major national and international firms in the financial and commercial sectors, and in manufacturing, retailing and IT, as well as in the public sector – for example, in the health and education sectors, or in government and politics. Small numbers go on to undertake postgraduate studies, either in economics, research, teacher training or further qualifications in specialist areas.

United States

Economist salaries by educational attainment.[5]
According to the United States Department of Labor there were 13,000 economists in the US with a median salary of roughly $72,780 with the top ten percent earning more than US$ 129,170 annually.[6] About 400 colleges and universities grant about 900 new Ph.D.s in economics each year. The type of academic degree, Bachelors, Masters or Doctorate degree had significant influence on an individuals job outlook and salary. While the overall expected job growth for economists remains below nation average, the demand for those with a Doctorate, especially those employed in the corporate sector, is expected to increase at a considerably faster pace.[7] Incomes were highest for those in the private sector, followed by the federal government with academia and high schools paying the lowest incomes. Median salaries ranged from $45,000 for those with a Bachelor to $85,000 for those with a Ph.D. in economics. A recent and continuous study by PayScale.com showed Economic consultants with a Ph.D. had the overall highest median income for any group making $116,250, the median salaries for an assistant professor was $63,500, for an associate professor it lay at $67,000 and $85,000 for a full professor. The overall median income for doctorates in academia was $75,000 compared to $125,000 in consulting and $87,000 in banking.[5]
Policy advising and analyzing of economic current trends are among the main responsibilities of economists in the United States. A recent study of U.S. economists by Daniel B. Klein and Charlotta Stern found that the responses show that most economists are supporters of safety regulations, gun control, redistribution, public schooling, and anti-discrimination laws. They are evenly mixed on personal choice issues, military action, and the minimum wage. Most economists oppose tighter immigration controls, government ownership of enterprise and tariffs.[8] A study in the Southern Economic Journal found that “71 percent of American economists believe the distribution of income in the US should be more equal, and 81 percent feel that the redistribution of income is a legitimate role for government.”[9] In terms of political orientation 63% identified as progressive and less than 20% as conservative/libertarian[10] with registered Democrats outnumbering registered Republicans 2.8:1.[8]

United Kingdom
The largest single professional grouping of economists in the UK are the more than 1000 members of the Government Economic Service, who work in 30 government departments and agencies.
Analysis of destination surveys for economics graduates from a number of selected top schools of economics in the United Kingdom (ranging from Newcastle University to the London School of Economics), shows nearly 80 per cent in employment six months after graduation – with a wide range of roles and employers, including regional, national and international organisations, across many sectors. This figure compares very favourably with the national picture, with 64 per cent of economics graduates in employment

italys way of life

The life in northern Italy is not as big as the life in southern Italy. The north is a lot richer. The north also is more urbanized and has more industries than the south. The service industries are manufacturing and construction. The percentage of the people who worked in agriculture is higher in the south than in the north. In most parts of Italy people live in the city and the towns. Italians are really attached to their towns, homes, neighborhoods, and their families
City Life
A lot more than two-thirds of Italy’s people live around the Urban Areas. Italians live in concrete apartment buildings. A few of the wealthy people live in single-family homes. The oldest parts of an Italian cities consist a lot of low buildings that have apartments around the central court yard. The newer sections of the city often have big apartment buildings. Most of the home owners by rather apartments than rent their apartments. The poor neighborhoods are usually located on the outer part of the city.
Most unmarried children live with their parents. Parents a lot of the time help an adult son or daughter near an apartment near their own. A lot of young women work outside of their house. Grandparents often help watch the children of working moms. Most of the urban areas have public child-care centers.
Cities grew because of the use of private cars which led to serious urban pollution. In big cities, the air pollution problems pose a health hazard and has damaged priceless architecture. Bologna and a lot of other cities have eased this problem by banning private cars from the city centers.
Rural Life
In the past, a lot of rural communities in Italy consisted of a big agreement surrounded by a big area of agricultural land. Farmers most of the time live in a town and travel to fields each day. This pattern was especially common in southern Italy. In the north, a lot of farmers live on their land.
Most of the rural townspeople live in apartment buildings. Only wealthy people had their own buildings, which was usually in the middle of the community. Today, more and more single-family homes are being built in rural areas, sometimes outside of the old communities.
Food and Drinks
The Italians take a lot of pride in their cooking. They usually eat their main meal at midday. They have big meals, such as a pasta meal, which
is followed by the main meal of either meat or fish. Sometimes they eat a meal of antipasto, which are appetizers. The antipasto has a lot of different cold meats and some vegetables, such as prosciutto (a type of ham,) salami, olives, and artichoke hearts.
Italian food differs a lot by the regions. In the north, flat, ribbon-shaped pastas get served with cream sauces are the most popular. In the south, macaroni is served with tomato-based sauces. Soups of all kinds usually take the spot of pasta as a first meal. Another popular meal is risotto, a rice plate with vegetables. The most popular meats are veal and pork. Cheeses are also important. They are either eaten alone or used in other meals. Pizza is a popular snack and is also eaten as a light meal. Fresh fruit is a popular desert. Traditionally, wine is served with every meal except breakfast.
Recreation
Italians like a wide amount of sports. Soccer is the most popular sport in Italy. Every major city has a professional soccer team. But soccer is not just a big sport- on the weekends. Italy’s parks are filled with kids and adults playing the game of soccer. Basketball is also very popular; some cities have more than one professional basketball team. Other popular sports are fishing, cycling, roller-skating, and baseball.
Family recreational activities are taking a traditional Sunday passeggiata (family stroll), driving to the seashore or the mountains, and watching TV. Italians insist going to the movies, but growing popularity of watching TV has led to a decline in the movie attendance.
Religion
About 95 percent of Italy’s people are Roman Catholics. Most baptisms, weddings, and funerals are held in churches, but only about 30 percent of all Italians attend church regularly. A lot of others occasionally attend church. An agreement called the Latheran Pact governs the relationship between Italy and the Roman Catholic Church. For instance, the part is about priests and other members of religious orders from military service and gives tax exemptions to Catholic organizations.
The Roman Catholic Church has had a strong influence on laws in the past, but that influence has weakened. For example, until 1970, the church was able to block attempts to legalize divorce in Italy. In 1978, voters didn’t allow the church position and voted to allow abortions.
Vatican City, the spiritual and governmental center of the Roman Catholic Church, lies entirely within the city of Rome. There are a lot of small religious people in Italy. These groups are Protestane, Muslim, and Jewish.
Education
Every kid between the ages of 6-14 go to school in Italy. More than 90 percent of them attend public schools. Through the Ministry of Education in Rome, the national government sets educational policies and selects the school system’s curricula and books. The required schooling is followed by a three-year junior high school. After they graduate from junior high school, students attend one of a lot of different kinds of senior high schools. A lot of the schools often have four or five year programs to study. The biggest group of students go to vocational schools, science schools, classical schools, teacher training schools, and language schools.
Any senior high school graduate may attend a university. Italy has 47 public universities. This country also has a few private universities, a lot of which are run by the Roman Catholic Church. Together, the universities enroll more than a million students each year. A lot of university programs last from four to six years.
University enrollment had been very heavy since the late 1960’s. The university of Rome, with an enrollment of about 170,000 is the biggest university in Italy. The university of Bologna, which dates from about 1100, is one of the world’s oldest universities.
Museums and Libraries
Italy is one of the world’s greatest centers of architecture, art, and books. A lot of its art museums rank among the most famous in the world. A lot of Italy’s museums are the famous palace of kings or the houses of royal families. These museums include the Pitti palace and the Uffizi Palace in Florence. National archaeological museums in Caglian, Naples, and Palermo contain artifacts from the earliest history of Italy. Displays in the national galleries in Naples, Palermor, and Urbino have paintings by Italian masters.
All large Italian cities have public libraries. The largest libraries in the country are the national central libraries in Florence and Rome. The one in Florence has about four and a half million volumes; the one in Rome has about three and a half million volumes. In Italy, people visit libraries only for serious study. Local libraries have little in the way of popular books for general readers, and children’s libraries are rare.

What is family life like in Britain ?

The family in Britain is changing. The once typical British family headed by two parents has undergone substantial changes during the twentieth century. In particular there has been a rise in the number of single-person households, which increased from 18 to 29 per cent of all households between 1971 and 2002. By the year 2020, it is estimated that there will be more single people than married people. Fifty years ago this would have been socially unacceptable in Britain.
In the past, people got married and stayed married. Divorce was very difficult, expensive and took a long time. Today, people’s views on marriage are changing. Many couples, mostly in their twenties or thirties, live together (cohabit) without getting married. Only about 60% of these couples will eventually get married.
In the past, people married before they had children, but now about 40% of children in Britain are born to unmarried (cohabiting) parents. In 2000, around a quarter of unmarried people between the ages of 16 and 59 were cohabiting in Great Britain. Cohabiting couples are also starting families without first being married. Before 1960 this was very unusual, but in 2001 around 23 per cent of births in the UK were to cohabiting couples.
People are generally getting married at a later age now and many women do not want to have children immediately. They prefer to concentrate on their jobs and put off having a baby until late thirties.
The number of single-parent families is increasing. This is mainly due to more marriages ending in divorce, but some women are also choosing to have children as lone parents without being married.
Family Size
On average 2.4 people live as a family in one home Britain. This is smaller than most other European countries.

The Social Aspect of Women in Islam

A) As a Daughter:
(1) The Quran ended the cruel practice of female infanticide, which was before Islam. God has said:
And when the girl (who was) buried alive is asked, for what sin she was killed. (Quran, 81:8-9)
(2) The Quran went further to rebuke the unwelcoming attitude of some parents upon hearing the news of the birth of a baby girl, instead of a baby boy. God has said:
And when one of them is informed of (the birth of) a female, his face becomes dark, and he suppresses grief. He hides himself from the people because of the ill of which he has been informed. Should he keep it in humiliation or bury it in the ground? Certainly, evil is what they decide. (Quran 16:58-59)
(3) Parents are duty-bound to support and show kindness and justice to their daughters. The Prophet Muhammad said: {Whosoever supports two daughters until they mature, he and I will come on the Day of Judgment as this (and he pointed with his fingers held together).}
(4) A crucial aspect in the upbringing of daughters that greatly influences their future is education. Education is not only a right but a responsibility for all males and females. The Prophet Muhammad said: {Seeking knowledge is mandatory for every Muslim.} The word “Muslim” here is inclusive of both males and females.
(5) Islam neither requires nor encourages female circumcision. And while it is maybe practiced by some Muslims in certain parts of Africa, it is also practiced by other peoples, including Christians, in those places, a reflection merely of the local customs and practices there.
B) As a Wife:
(1) Marriage in Islam is based on mutual peace, love, and compassion, and not just the mere satisfying of human sexual desire. Among the most impressive verses in the Quran about marriage is the following:
And of His signs is: that He created for you from yourselves mates that you may find tranquility in them; and He placed between you affection and mercy. Indeed in that are signs for a people who give thought. (Quran, 30:21, see also 42:11 and 2:228)
(2) The female has the right to accept or reject marriage proposals. According to the Islamic Law, women cannot be forced to marry anyone without their consent.
(3) The husband is responsible for the maintenance, protection, and overall leadership of the family, within the framework of consultation (see the Quran 2:233) and kindness (see the Quran 4:19). The mutuality and complementarity of husband and wife does not mean subservience by either party to the other. The Prophet Muhammad instructed Muslims regarding women: {I commend you to be good to women.} And {The best among you are those who are best to their wives.} The Quran urges husbands to be kind and considerate to their wives, even if a wife falls out of favor with her husband or disinclination for her arises within him:
…And live with them in kindness. For if you dislike them, perhaps you dislike a thing and God makes therein much good. (Quran, 4:19)
It also outlawed the Arabian practice before Islam whereby the stepson of the deceased father was allowed to take possession of his father’s widow(s) (inherit them) as if they were part of the estate of the deceased (see the Quran 4:19).
(4) Should marital disputes arise, the Quran encourages couples to resolve them privately in a spirit of fairness and probity. Indeed, the Quran outlines an enlightened step and wise approach for the husband and wife to resolve persistent conflict in their marital life. In the event that dispute cannot be resolved equitably between husband and wife, the Quran prescribes mediation between the parties through family intervention on behalf of both spouses (see the Quran 4:35).
(5) Divorce is a last resort, permissible but not encouraged, for the Quran esteems the preservation of faith and the individual’s right -male and female alike- to felicity. Forms of marriage dissolution include an enactment based upon mutual agreement, the husband’s initiative, the wife’s initiative (if part of her marital contract), the court’s decision on a wife’s initiative (for a legitimate reason), and the wife’s initiative without a cause, provided that she returns her marital gift to her husband. When the continuation of the marriage relationship is impossible for any reason, men are still taught to seek a gracious end for it. The Quran states about such cases:
And when you divorce women and they have fulfilled their term (i.e. waiting period), either keep them in kindness or release them in kindness, and do not keep them, intending harm, to transgress (against them). (Quran, 2:231, see also 2:229 and 33:49).
(6) Associating polygyny with Islam, as if it was introduced by it or is the norm according to its teachings, is one of the most persistent myths perpetuated in Western literature and media. Polygyny existed in almost all nations and was even sanctioned by Judaism and Christianity until recent centuries. Islam did not outlaw polygyny, as did many peoples and religious communities; rather, it regulated and restricted it. It is not required but simply permitted with conditions (see the Quran 4:3). Spirit of law, including timing of revelation, is to deal with individual and collective contingencies that may arise from time to time (e.g. imbalances between the number of males and females created by wars) and to provide a moral, practical, and humane solution for the problems of widows and orphans

The Economic Aspect of Women in Islam:

The Right to Possess Personal Property: Islam decreed a right of which woman was deprived both before Islam and after it (even as late as this century), the right of independent ownership. The Islamic Law recognizes the full property rights of women before and after marriage. They may buy, sell, or lease any or all of their properties at will. For this reason, Muslim women may keep (and in fact they have traditionally kept) their maiden names after marriage, an indication of their independent property rights as legal entities.
(2) Financial Security and Inheritance Laws: Financial security is assured for women. They are entitled to receive marital gifts without limit and to keep present and future properties and income for their own security, even after marriage. No married woman is required to spend any amount at all from her property and income on the household. The woman is entitled also to full financial support during marriage and during the “waiting period” (iddah) in case of divorce or widowhood. Some jurists require, in addition, one year’s support for divorce and widowhood (or until they remarry, if remarriage takes place before the year is over). A woman who bears a child in marriage is entitled to child support from the child’s father. Generally, a Muslim woman is guaranteed support in all stages of her life, as a daughter, wife, mother, or sister. The financial advantages accorded to women and not to men in marriage and in family have a social counterpart in the provisions that the Quran lays down in the laws of inheritance, which afford the male, in most cases, twice the inheritance of a female. Males inherit more but ultimately they are financially responsible for their female relatives: their wives, daughters, mothers, and sisters. Females inherit less but retain their share for investment and financial security, without any legal obligation to spend any part of it, even for their own sustenance (food, clothing, housing, medication, etc). It should be noted that before Islam, women themselves were sometimes objects of inheritance (see the Quran 4:19). In some western countries, even after the advent of Islam, the whole estate of the deceased was given to his/her eldest son. The Quran, however, made it clear that both men and women are entitled to a specified share of the estate of their deceased parents or close relatives. God has said:
For men is a share of what the parents and close relatives leave, and for women is a share of what the parents and close relatives leave, be it little or much, an obligatory share. (Quran, 4:7)
(3) Employment: With regard to the woman’s right to seek employment, it should be stated first that Islam regards her role in society as a mother and a wife as her most sacred and essential one. Neither maids nor baby sitters can possibly take the mother’s place as the educator of an upright, complex-free, and carefully-reared child. Such a noble and vital role, which largely shapes the future of nations, cannot be regarded as idleness. However, there is no decree in Islam that forbids women from seeking employment whenever there is a necessity for it, especially in positions which fit her nature best and in which society needs her most. Examples of these professions are nursing, teaching (especially children), medicine, and social and charitable work.

Foundations of Spiritual and Human Equity in Islam:

Equity in Islam:
In the midst of the darkness that engulfed the world, the divine revelation echoed in the wide desert of Arabia in the seventh Century with a fresh, noble, and universal message to humanity, described below.
(1) According to the Holy Quran, men and women have the same human spiritual nature:
O mankind, fear your Lord, who created you from one soul and created from it its mate and dispersed from both of them many men and women… (Quran, 4:1, see also 7:189, 42:11, 16:72, 32:9, and 15:29).
(2) God has invested both genders with inherent dignity and has made men and women, collectively, the trustees of God on earth (see the Quran 17:70 and 2:30).
(3) The Quran does not blame woman for the “fall of man,” nor does it view pregnancy and childbirth as punishments for “eating from the forbidden tree.” On the contrary, the Quran depicts Adam and Eve as equally responsible for their sin in the Garden, never singling out Eve for blame. Both repented, and both were forgiven (see the Quran 2:36-37 and 7:19-27). In fact, in one verse (Quran 20:121) Adam specifically was blamed. The Quran also esteems pregnancy and childbirth as sufficient reasons for the love and respect due to mothers from their children (Quran 31:14 and 46:15).
(4) Men and women have the same religious and moral duties and responsibilities. Each human being shall face the consequences of his or her deeds:
And their Lord responded to them (saying): Never will I allow to be lost the work of (any) worker among you, whether male or female; you are of one another… (Quran, 3:195, see also 74:38, 16:97, 4:124, 33:35, and 57:12).
(5) The Quran is quite clear about the issue of the claimed superiority or inferiority of any human, male or female. The sole basis for superiority of any person over another is piety and righteousness not gender, color, or nationality (see the Quran 49:13).

Women in Ancient Civilizations:

One major objective of this article is to provide a fair evaluation of what Islam contributed toward the restoration of woman’s dignity and rights. In order to achieve this objective, it may be useful to review briefly how women were treated in general in previous civilizations and religions, especially those which preceded Islam (before 610 AD). Part of the information provided here, however, describes the status of woman as late as this century, more than 13 centuries after Islam.
(1) Describing the status of the Indian woman, The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911, states: “In India, subjection was a cardinal principle. Day and night must women be held by their protectors in a state of dependence says Manu. The rule of inheritance was agnatic, that is descent traced through males to the exclusion of females.” In Hindu scriptures, the description of a good wife is as follows: “a woman whose mind, speech and body are kept in subjection, acquires high renown in this world, and, in the next, the same abode with her husband.” (Mace, Marriage East and West).
(2) In Athens, women were not better off than either the Indian or the Roman women: “Athenian women were always minors, subject to some male – to their father, to their brother, or to some of their male kin.” (Allen, E. A., History of Civilization). Her consent in marriage was not generally thought to be necessary and “she was obliged to submit to the wishes of her parents, and receive from them her husband and her lord, even though he were stranger to her.” (Previous Source)
(3) A Roman wife was described by a historian as: “a babe, a minor, a ward, a person incapable of doing or acting anything according to her own individual taste, a person continually under the tutelage and guardianship of her husband.” (Previous Source). In The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911, we find a summary of the legal status of women in the Roman civilization: “In Roman Law a woman was even in historic times completely dependent. If married she and her property passed into the power of her husband . . . the wife was the purchased property of her husband, and like a slave acquired only for his benefit. A woman could not exercise any civil or public office . . . could not be a witness, surety, tutor, or curator; she could not adopt or be adopted, or make will or contract.”
(4) Among the Scandinavian races women were: “under perpetual tutelage, whether married or unmarried. As late as the Code of Christian V, at the end of the 17th Century, it was enacted that if a woman married without the consent of her tutor he might have, if he wished, administration and usufruct of her goods during her life.” (The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911).
(5) In Britain, the right of married women to own property was not recognized until the late 19th Century, “By a series of acts starting with the Married Women’s Property Act in 1870, amended in 1882 and 1887, married women achieved the right to own property and to enter into contracts on a par with spinsters, widows, and divorcees.” (Encyclopedia Britannica, 1968). In France, it was not until 1938 that the French Law was amended so as to recognize the eligibility of women to contract. A married woman, however, was still required to secure her husband’s permission before she could dispense with her private property.
(6) In the Mosaic (Jewish) Law, the wife was betrothed. Explaining this concept, the Encyclopedia Biblica, 1902, states: “To betroth a wife to oneself meant simply to acquire possession of her by payment of the purchase money; the betrothed is a girl for whom the purchase money has been paid.” From the legal point of view, the consent of the girl was not necessary for the validation of her marriage. “The girl’s consent is unnecessary and the need for it is nowhere suggested in the Law.” (Previous Source). As to the right of divorce, we read in the Encyclopedia Biblica: “The woman being man’s property, his right to divorce her follows as a matter of course.” The right to divorce was held only by man, The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911, states: “In the Mosaic Law divorce was a privilege of the husband only…”
(7) The position of the Christian Church until recent centuries seems to have been influenced by both the Mosaic Law and by the streams of thought that were dominant in its contemporary cultures. In their book, Marriage East and West, David and Vera Mace wrote: “Let no one suppose, either, that our Christian heritage is free of such slighting judgments. It would be hard to find anywhere a collection of more degrading references to the female sex than the early Church Fathers provide. Lecky, the famous historian, speaks of ‘these fierce incentives which form so conspicuous and so grotesque a portion of the writing of the Fathers . . . woman was represented as the door of hell, as the mother of all human ills. She should be ashamed at the very thought that she is a woman. She should live in continual penance on account of the curses she has brought upon the world. She should be ashamed of her dress, for it is the memorial of her fall. She should be especially ashamed of her beauty, for it is the most potent instrument of the devil.’ One of the most scathing of these attacks on woman is that of Tertullian: ‘Do you know that you are each an Eve? The sentence of God on this sex of yours lives in this age; the guilt must of necessity live too. You are the devil’s gateway; you are the unsealer of that forbidden tree; you are the first deserters of the divine law; you are she who persuades him whom the devil was not valiant enough to attack.’ Not only did the church affirm the inferior status of woman, it deprived her of legal rights she had previously enjoyed.”